Aleppo pine cones and seeds in Tunisia: ecological and economic importance

Aleppo pine (*Pinus halepensis*) forests in North Africa support vital ecosystem services and socio-economic value through cone and seed production. In Tunisia, demand for seeds has risen since the 1990s, with 300 tons collected annually for culinary use, especially in traditional *Assidat zguouj*. Seeds are rich in protein (25%) and fat (34%). Production varies by bioclimatic zone: sub-humid zones yield longer cones (74.2 mm) and higher seed counts, while arid zones produce heavier individual seeds. Geographic variables such as altitude, latitude, and longitude significantly influence cone and seed traits, with predictive models showing strong correlations. Sustainable management relies on natural regeneration, fire risk mitigation, and habitat protection. Climate, topography, and fuel loads inform fire risk models. Higher Mediterraneanity, linked to increased precipitation and lower continentality, enhances yield in northern and north-eastern regions. These findings support targeted silvicultural strategies to optimise production and conservation.