Biodiversity in agroforestry: tree integration for ecosystem services

Agroforestry enhances biodiversity and ecosystem services in temperate systems by integrating trees, shrubs, and crops. It supports 112% more small mammals and 11% more natural pest predators than monocultures, due to improved habitat and food resources. Diverse plant species, including those providing extra-floral nectar, boost pollinator populations like wild bees. Optimal pest control requires predator habitats within 50–300 meters of crops. Design strategies include using trees like poplars, fruit, and nut trees; promoting perennial undergrowth; ensuring varied flowering periods; and minimizing chemical inputs. Mulching prunings and preserving tall vegetation enhance soil fertility and nesting sites. Systems with multiple plant species and long rotations improve disease resilience. Agroforestry delivers key services including carbon sequestration, water and nutrient regulation, and climate resilience, supporting sustainable agriculture and biodiversity conservation.